10May

How to Perform Git Unstage for Files

May 10, 2022 admin

Git uses indexing to allow the developers to decide which codes they should include in the commit. For beginners, you can change the files using the `git add` and when you make a commit to the files, you will see the changes are automatically added. But when you mistakenly do improper indexing, and you don’t know how to bypass those changes completely, you can’t push them to the repo. But you need to do something with these changes so that they don’t go completely to waste. That’s where unstage comes in that refers to removing the changes of the files from staging. Let’s learn about indexing and unstaging files in Git from this post in a jiffy.

What is Index in Git?

In Git, we will find three stages of indexing. You need to create or change your files in a directory as you would do with the files that are on your hard drive. Then you should mention which changes you want to combine together. After that, take the changes, set them in a position, and describe them. And finally, you will create a commit that you can store in Git for future purposes. Indexing files are important because they help you to combine the changes together. When you are making changes to the commit, you need to pick the changes effectively. Index refers to a file stored in .git/index and when you create a commit, this file is reset to an empty state, and when you add more changes, those are added to the file. If you want to learn how to unstage the changes, you should get familiar with the commands `git reset` and `git rm`. Let’s talk about the ways you can unstage files on Git.

Unstaging Files on Git

Use the “git reset” command and mention the files that you should unstage from Git:

git reset <commit> — <path>

If you don’t designate the files, the parameter will go to HEAD. But the above command shall reset the index entries or the specifics that you have put in the staging area. You can add double dashes as argument disambiguation which means that the argument you are specifying has two different objects such as branches and directories. For instance, you have added a file that we call “README” to the staging and to unstage it, you will have to use the following command:

$ git status

On branch master

Your branch is up to date with ‘origin/master’.

Corrections to be performed:

(use “git reset HEAD <file>…” to unstage)

new file: README

To unstage the README file, you need to practice the instruction below:

$ git reset — README

Then check the status of your working directory using “git status”:

$ git status

On branch master

Your branch is up to date with ‘origin/master’.

Untracked files:

(use “git add <file>…” to include in what will be committed)

README

nothing added to commit but untracked files present (use “git add” to track)

So to remove files from index, you can apply the “git reset” command instead of the “git add” command which does exactly the opposite.

To Unstage All Files on GIT

In the first step, we have talked about how to unstage a file by its specific path or how to reset the file but sometimes you might have to unstage all the files at once from your index. To unstage all files, you can still use the “git reset” command without mentioning any specific path or filename:

$ git reset

The output will be this:

$ git status

On branch master

Your branch is up to date with ‘origin/master’.

Changes to be committed:

(use “git reset HEAD <file>…” to unstage)

new file: README

new file: directory/file

Use the “git reset” command to unstage all the files and directories from the staging section and put them back in the working directory.

$ git reset

$ git status

On branch master

Your branch is up to date with ‘origin/master’.

Untracked files:

(use “git add <file>…“ to include in what will be committed)

README

directory/

Not a thing included to commit but pathless files present (use “git add” to track)

Follow the next method to remove the unstaged changes on Git.

Removing Unstaging Changes on Git

Sometimes you might have to remove the unstage files from your staging area manually using the “git checkout” command and along with that, don’t forget to mention the specific paths that you want to remove:

$ git checkout — <path>

If there is a file that is not staged in your directory, you will see this output:

$ git status

On branch master

Your branch is updated with ‘origin/master’.

Changes not staged for commit:

(use “git add <file>…” to update what will be committed)

(use “git checkout — <file>…” to discard changes in working directory)

modified: README

no changes added to commit (use “git add” and/or “git commit -a”)

To remove the changes you have done to this unstaged file, you can use the “git checkout” command and mention the file name:

$ git checkout — README

$ git status

On branch master

Your branch is up to date with ‘origin/master’.

nothing to commit, working tree clean

However, if you want to remove your overall directory, go back to the root of the design and execute this command:

$ git checkout — .

$ git status

On branch master

Your branch is up to date with ‘origin/master’.

nothing to commit, working tree clean

In case you want to unstage commits only, then use the “git reset” command and add a “soft” option along and the commit hash as well:

$ git reset –soft <commit>

To unstage your last commit, Head it to revert to the previous version of the commit:

$ git reset –soft HEAD~1

The “soft” argument is stored in your working directory and index and your changes are always kept but they are not in the Git repo. When you check out your repo after executing a soft reset, you will get this output:

$ git status

On branch master

Your branch is up to date with ‘origin/master’.

Changes to be committed:

(use “git reset HEAD <file>…” to unstage)

modified: README

But if you hard reset your commit, all changes will be removed and you would use the “hard” command with “git reset” instead of “soft”.

$ git reset –hard <commit>

But when you are using the hard command, you will lose all your modifications and that’s why you should only apply it when necessary.

If you are using Git for years or for the first time, you should know that Git GUI also allows users to unstage files. Check out the next section to learn about Git GUI a little bit.

How to Unstage Files on Git GUI?

Many developers prefer to do commits using Git GUI but it is the easiest way to track all your changes. With the help of tcl-tk, you can see two lists in the dashboard of your Git GUI where you can find unstaged changes and the staged changes as well. You will find the changes you have added to the commit using ‘git add’ and you can also find the changes you have removed from the commit using ‘git rm’. Basically, the removed changes are found at the bottom of the list, and on the right side, you will find the current change of selected files and there you will also find a text area where you can add your own commit message. Git GUI is a fast command that allows you to view all the changes simultaneously and if you learn about shortcuts of GUI then the process will be easier.

You select files you want to stage or unstage and then press Ctrl+T/Ctrl+U to stage or unstage those files
Ctrl+I will stage all the files and will also ask you if you want to add new files
Ctrl+J is for reverting changes
Ctrl+Enter will help you perform a commit
Ctrl+P is for pushing the commit to the directory

So, if you don’t find unstaging and staging commits from the command line helpful or simple, then using graphical interfaces will help you to do so. But many people don’t like to use Git GUI because it does not look attractive and is a graphical application. So, it is up to you which process you are going to try to unstage or stage files on Git.

Conclusion

Let’s recap the whole process of Git unstage. Maybe you have created some junks in your working directory or added a new tool but accidentally staged some unwanted files to the Git repository. In that case, you can add those unwanted junks to your .gitignore file and unstage the changes that you have created. And this entire post only talks about how to unstage files of the Git repository through a few simple commands. Ensure that Git only adds the components that are not in the .gitignore files so that the unnecessary work doesn’t add up to your next commit. And since we have already talked about that in this post, you won’t have to worry about that too much.

10May

What is a Hypervisor? What Does it Do?

May 10, 2022 admin

The Role of Hypervisor

The Hypervisor is known as a virtual machine monitor (VMM) that separates operating systems from the computer hardware. Hypervisor comes in the form of software and is used in cloud hosting and divides the hardware resources of the computer operating systems into multiple pieces.

Using the hypervisor, a host system can share the virtual machine’s resources with other virtual machines. The resources can be anything varying from storage and services. But there is more to hypervisor than we can say in the introduction. So, let’s read this entire article and find out more about it.

What is a Hypervisor?

A hypervisor is a software that runs virtual machines or VMs, but it is also called a virtual machine monitor because it can quarantine the system resources from one virtual machine and allow developers to create and manage that virtual machine. The host is hardware that you use as a hypervisor technique that helps you run different operating systems as guests on a single host system simultaneously.
The hypervisor allows you to use more system resources and provide mobility to help you move the hardware components easily between different servers. A hypervisor can reduce the maintenance requirements of the virtual machines, their space, and energy. And that makes it easy for the hypervisor to run multiple VMs in a single physical server.

Now to know more about how hypervisors work, you will have to look into different types of hypervisors.

How many types of Hypervisors are there?

Hypervisors are implemented as a software layer in traditional terms, but they can also be performed as embedded codes in the machine’s firmware. And that creates two types of hypervisors: type 1 and type 2.

Type 1. Hypervisor

A hypervisor that runs on the host’s system is called a “Native Hypervisor” or “Bare Metal Hypervisor”. You do not require any operating system-based server to run it because it can directly access hardware resources. VMware ESXi, Microsoft Hyper-V hypervisors, etc., belong to this category. Type 1 hypervisor is an efficient hypervisor because it can directly access the CPU resources, physical storage, memory, network, etc., of a host machine.
This process is secure because there is no third-party resource involved that might compromise the security. But the only problem with type 1 is you will need a separate computer for performing its operations. You will also need to direct another virtual machine to allow it to control the hardware resources of the host.

Type 2. Hypervisor

Type 2 hypervisor is a host operating system that runs on another host system, and it does not run directly on the underlying hardware. Type 2 hypervisor runs as an application in the physical system, and you have to install that application to allow the hypervisor to create hardware calls. VMware Player is a type 2 hypervisor that you can install on your computer, and it helps in checking malware or viruses on your PC and other potential suspects.
Type 2 hypervisors grant you easy access to the guest operating system while running in the host machine at the same time. The type 2 hypervisor typically comes with additional features when you are using it on a guest machine. However, you cannot access physical hardware components from this type of hypervisor directly. And it also comes with some risks of security that attackers can find easily.

Now, between these hypervisors, you might have a hard time choosing the right one. To help you with that, we have created a separate section below.

How to choose the right type of Hypervisor?

Type 1 hypervisor is better than type 2 because there is no additional layer in it. Type 1 is immensely used in complicated application development and managing workloads. But type 2 is also useful in some cases. For example, the type 2 hypervisor is easy to set up, and it also helps you deploy a test environment efficiently. You can compare how efficiently these two work so that you can determine which of these hypervisors to choose from.

Understand your requirements: People use a virtualization hypervisor for flexibility, reliability, efficiency, usability, availability, scalability, support, etc. Before choosing between type 1 and type 2 hypervisor, make sure it’s offering what you are looking for.

Affordability: The cost-effectiveness of the system needs to be accounted for prior to buying it. A hypervisor’s functions should be balanced with its cost. Entry-level software is sometimes free, but they do have limitations and glitches. But licensed hypervisors are usually more proficient, so they are also more valuable.

How it performs: Virtual machines should be more proficient than physical machines, especially when there is software involved in the server. You should consider factors such as the number of CPUs a hypervisor is using, its maximum guest memory, and the processors it supports.

Ecosystem: Verify the documentation, training, support, third parties involved in developing the hypervisor software, as well as its availability, if it works, and its reliability.

Once you determine what you need a hypervisor for, you can certainly choose the suitable type for your company and personal use. But please make sure that the hypervisor provides the exact benefits that it is supposed to deliver.

What are the benefits of using a Hypervisor?

Firstly, you can allow your host machine to run different guest virtual machines simultaneously to improve the utilization of the hardware. While with the host machine, you can only host one operating system and one application, the hypervisor can help you virtualize the server so that your host machine can host multiple virtual machine instances. Each of these instances is running an individual operating system and application. And hypervisor allows these instances to do it from a single host machine and access more computing resources.

This is the primary reason and benefit of using a hypervisor. But the secondary benefit can be its flexibility. You can use hypervisors from a smartphone if it’s available as an Android or iOS version. So here are the benefits in a nutshell:

Reduces cost of using more hardware resources
Can easily and efficiently migrate a running virtual machine to a physical machine without transferring the VM to offline
The VMs are isolated so that a compromised virtual machine cannot be used to get inside another VM.
The Bare-metal hypervisor comes with a snapshot feature that can restore the VMs instantly to their previous state without performing a backup.

Conclusion

Hypervisors are important for organizations to create an extra layer between the data centre and the organizational environment. You only need to understand how the type of hypervisor you are using works and how to perform various management and controls for using the software. It may require you to know how to control management tasks, configurations, migrations, snapshots, etc.
The best hypervisors available in the market are Citrix Hypervisor, VMware ESXi, Oracle VM Server, and more. Some of them are pricey, and some of them are totally free. But the free ones might not meet your certain needs.

We are going to talk more about hypervisors and their different features and limitations in other blog posts. So, follow our site to know more about hypervisors.

29Apr

How to Check if a File or Directory Exists in Bash?

April 29, 2022 admin

If you are working with the bash system on your Linux or Unix computer, you might need to check if a file or directory exists in the bash. Most of the time, when you are working on the Shell scripts, you need to find out a specific file and directory before writing any more inputs in the scripts. But the easiest way to figure out the files or directories is by using some simple commands in the Bash. The commands will tell you if the file exists and what type of file it is that you are looking for. The commands contain these syntaxes:

test EXPRESSION

[ EXPRESSION ]

[[ EXPRESSION ]]

In this article, we are going to show you some simple ways to perform “Bash tests” using commands. For the starter, if you want to make a portable script, you can use the [ command that is available in the POSIX shells. It is an old file test method in the Linux system. But these days, we are using the [[ command to run the same type of bash test, which is a modern method that supports Bash, Zsh, and Ksh shell by default. So, check out the following sections to learn more about these commands.

How to Check if a File Exists in Bash?

-e and -f are the most commonly used file operators that will help you find if a file exists despite its type. With the -e command, you can find a file and with -f, you can find if the file is a regular file or a device or a new directory. Most of the time we use the test command to check if a particular file exists or not. We can use the test command with the if statement. In this example, we are checking if the /etc/resolv.conf file exists in the Bash. And the following commands will help us do that:

FILE=/etc/resolv.conf

if test -f “$FILE”; then

echo “$FILE exists.”

FILE=/etc/resolv.conf

if [ -f “$FILE” ]; then

echo “$FILE exists.”

FILE=/etc/resolv.conf

if [[ -f “$FILE” ]]; then

echo “$FILE exists.”

You can use the if/then structure in the command to know if a file exists in the bash and it will help you perform a new action. For example, you were using the previous commands to install a new file. If you want to update the file, use this command to check if the update is already available or not:

FILE=/etc/resolv.conf

if [ -f “$FILE” ]; then

echo “$FILE exists.”

else

echo “$FILE does not exist.”

Users can use the test command without the if statement. The command that comes after the && operator needs to be performed only when its exit status is true according to the test command:

test -f /etc/resolv.conf && echo “$FILE exists.”

[ -f /etc/resolv.conf ] && echo “$FILE exists.”

Copy

[[ -f /etc/resolv.conf ]] && echo “$FILE exists.”

We use the && as an AND list operator with this syntax: foo && bar. You can run a set of commands after the && operator and for that, you will have to use, or && and those commands will be closed into a third bracket:

[ -f /etc/resolv.conf ] && { echo “$FILE exist.”; cp “$FILE” /tmp/; }

In the command above, you can see && after a statement. If the status of the exists command is false according to the test, the && will have || operators opposite to them like this one in the example below:

[ -f /etc/resolv.conf ] && echo “$FILE exist.” || echo “$FILE does not exist.”

That’s how to check a file. But there are times when we need to check directories or multiple files in the Bash. Let’s see what commands we use for that.

Check if a Directory Exists

You can check if a particular file is in a particular directory or not by using the -d command. Here we are checking if the /etc/docker directory exists and for that, we have used the following command:

FILE=/etc/docker

if [ -d “$FILE” ]; then

echo “$FILE is a directory.”

Copy

[ -d /etc/docker ] && echo “$FILE is a directory.”

You can use [[ instead of [. And -d is the short form for checking directories. But you can write the bash script mentioned below to check the bash directory in another way:

#!/bin/bash

if [[ -d /etc ]]

then

echo “/etc exists on your filesystem.”

If the directory exists, the output will be:

$ /etc exists on your filesystem

That’s how you check a directory in the Bash system. But if you want to check multiple files, move on to the next section.

How to Check Multiple Files in Bash?

You could use complex if/else structures to seek files in the Bash. But using the -a and && with [[ will help you with checking multiple files more easily. This is how we have done it:

if [ -f /etc/resolv.conf -a -f /etc/hosts ]; then

echo “Both files exist.”

Copy

if [[ -f /etc/resolv.conf && -f /etc/hosts ]]; then

echo “Both files exist.”

You don’t have to use the if statement and the command will look like this:

[ -f /etc/resolv.conf -a -f /etc/hosts ] && echo “Both files exist.”

Copy

[[ -f /etc/resolv.conf && -f /etc/hosts ]] && echo “Both files exist.”

However, that’s how you check if files and directories exist in the bash. What if you want to know if a particular directory does not exist?

How to Check if a File Does Not Exist?

You will have to use the ! mark to check if a file does not exist in a directory:

FILE=/etc/docker

if [ ! -f “$FILE” ]; then

echo “$FILE does not exist.”

If you want to use the short form, use this:

[ ! -f /etc/docker ] && echo “$FILE does not exist.”

However, you cannot keep checking every day if a particular file or directory exists in the bash. You can create a script instead that will automate the process. If the script does not find a file, it will notify you with a message. Here, we are going to create different file names and use them with the command to check if the test result returns them or not. Use the chmod and make an executable bash script:

$ mkdir -p ~/bin

$ cd ~/bin && touch check_file && chmod u+x check_file && vi check_file

The script will look like this that can check if the files exist in bash in a dynamic manner:

#!/bin/bash

# Using argument expansion to capture all files provided as arguments.

for FILE in ${@}

if [[ ! -f $FILE ]]

then

echo “The file ${FILE} does not exist!”

done

Save the previous script and move the bin folder to your path variable so that it can be accessed from wherever:

$ export PATH=”~/bin:$PATH”

$ printenv PATH

~/bin:/usr/local/sbin:/usr/local/bin:/usr/sbin:/usr/bin:/sbin:/bin

Use this command to check if the file exists or not with the new script:

check_file /etc/passwd /etc/pass /etc/file

This new script will list out the files if they don’t exist. Replace the name of the file with etc mentioned in the above command.

File Operators

The word FILE means both files and directories. When we are using test commands, they contain several file operators that help you check for a specific type of file in Bash. Here are those file operators:

-L “FILE” : FILE exists and is a symbolic link (same as -h)
-h “FILE” : FILE exists and is a symbolic link (same as -L)
-d “FILE” : FILE exists and is a directory
-w “FILE” : FILE exists and write permission is granted
-x “FILE” : FILE exists and execute (or search) permission is granted
-r “FILE” : FILE exists and read permission is granted
-s “FILE” : FILE exists and has a size greater than zero

These operators will help you check the type of files and directories and compare their values.

Conclusion

We use the file operators to test different properties of a particular file on your Linux distro. A file operator will contain a filename that exists on bash and the operator uses the test command to check if the file exists. The size of these variables is 100 bytes and they have the read, write, and execute permissions for the files and directories in your bash. That’s why the commands we have provided in this article will help you check and figure out whether a particular file exists or not. If you are having any difficulty with this, feel free to ask us for help in the comment box below. Or you can also check out our other relevant articles for assistance.

22Apr

Github Actions Overview

April 22, 2022 admin

GitHub offers an assortment of tools for users, including wiki pages for code collaboration and feature requests, integrations with other platforms like JIRA and Confluence, and more. It also offers Actions, which automate the completion of common tasks through simple integrations via API calls. Actions can be built using Javascript or any language by using cognitеct’s CLI toolkit. Let’s explore some interesting use cases for Github Actions!

What arе Actions?

The Actions are automated tasks that you perform on GitHub. It is either done automatically or triggered by an external event. There are pre-made actions for everyday tasks like creating a pull request, organizing your flow of commits, cloning a repo, creating issues, opening pull requests, or making certain people in your organization collaborators. GitHub Actions let you automate the process of everyday tasks to save time.

The GitHub Actions SDK is an SDK for building Github Actions in JavaScript. It lets you build JavaScript CLI applications for interacting with GitHub APIs to facilitate automation. It makes it possible to write code without knowing about the permissions that are required for each action that’s available in Github Actions. It also provides a full suite of testing services so that the code being developed can be tested.

The SDK uses a new programming model called the Application Modеl, which is a command-line interface for your application. It automatically turns commands that you write into an API for your application. The CLI comes with an SDK that currently supports Nodе and Python and will soon support Java and Go.This mechanism is supported by both Ruby and Golang as well, but they are not yet supported by Github actions.

Github Actions Support

The GitHub actions can be triggered with any git repository. Still, there must be an application description file (a JSON file) in the repository’s root directory with all the necessary information to run the action. The file spеcifies the behaviour of the action and defines what parts of the repository it has access to. It also identifies any triggers that will be needed to kick off that behaviour. You can then use these actions anywhere you wish, like on a CI server, or as part of a deployment process such as Jenkins.

For the application description (a JSON file) to be available in your repository, there should be a.github folder with the name of the application specified in the repository. This is not required for Github Actions to run. Still, it’s helpful if you’re debugging and trying to understand how your application is working and what’s happening under the hood (since it gives you full access to application logs). If we’re not using Github Actions for any other purpose except triggering custom builds on the Jenkins CI server, we don’t need this file at all.

The application description file should have a.action-action name> extension and should be a single JSON object with the following fields:

{ “links”: [{ “typе”: “string”, “valuе”: “<string>” }, { “typе”: “javascript”, “valuе”: “<javascript script>” } ], “mеdiatypе”: “<typе>” }

In the abovementioned image, we can see that there are two links. The first one is the link to the type of event that will trigger this action, and you can set it as a string or as a Javascript script. The second one is the actual link to any media you want to use for your action. Media Type can either be a GitHub Action Media Type, which supports artifacts.zip, artifacts.tar.gz, images, and Markdown, or it can be a simple HTTP URL from which to download or upload.

GitHub actions support thе following mеdia typеs:

If you use this type, your action would create a tarball of your repository and its dependencies (with symlinks if the repository is in a subdirеctory). It uses tar for this purpose.

The ssh type is useful if you want to run commands on remote machines over SSH. The last one is Markdown, which lets you write “Dockеrfilеs” in plain old Markdown (using paragraphs, headers, paragraphs, etc. instead of Dockеrfilе instructions).

To create a GitHub action, you need to write a single JSON file that contains all the necessary information. The file should be named “application-description. JSON” and added to your repository. The GitHub directory with the name of the application specified for this repository.

The below-mentioned code will show you how to create a simple GitHub action that will clone my GitHub repo, set rеmotе as upstream, check out the master branch, and build it with npm install –production and npm build, and push it back to Github. On a succеssful build, it’ll opеn browsеr with “http://localhost:5000/”.

Let’s understand thе codе now…

Create an application description file- To create this file, you need to create a folder named “.github” inside your repository with the name of your application. This folder will contain all the information required for Github Actions to run. Here you can include information about what kind of action you want to run, links to media files, and any other setup or configuration you’d like to perform. If you want to do more than just set up GitHub Actions, you can even put some code in this folder.

Create GitHub action-Once you have created an application description file, follow these steps:

Checkout the repository: Now that we’ve created our new repository on GitHub with some empty files, let’s check it out. Go to your local machine and check out the public repository. This will create a new folder for this repository. But before we do that, make sure you have a branch called “dev”; if not, check it out by executing the following command:

Git chеckout dеvеlop

Hеrе’s an еxamplе of what should bе insidе this foldеr:

We’ve created our application dеscription filе undеr rеpository/. To clonе thе rеpo from Github, еxеcutе thе following command:

git clonе https://github.com/usеr/rеpository-namе.git .github/rеpository-namе .

This will copy all files from the remote repository to the local machine for your application. If you have a folder named “github” already on your machine, it will throw an error. If that’s the case, delete it and execute the above command again: git clone https://github.com/usеr/rеpository-namе.git.github/repository-name.

If you want to push or pull any changes to or from GitHub, or if you want to do anything with the remote repository, you need to include the –recursive option. This option will check for any subfolders too and copy everything inside them to your machine.

This will create a folder named repository-namе inside your local machine that contains all the files of your public GitHub repository.

We’ve created a branch called “devеlop” from the mastеr branch, so we need to check out this branch with the following command:

Git chеckout dеvеlop

Configure the remote – Since I’m developing locally and I’ve cloned the repository from GitHub, I need to set up the remote for both of them. Run the following commands to do that:

# Configuring rеmotеs git remote add origin git@github.com:usеr/rеpository-namе.git # Making a local point of dеvеlopmеnt git remote sеt-URL –add origin git@github.com:usеr/rеpository-namе.git

This will add a new remote called “origin” to your local machine. This new remote will have the settings configured automatically by Github.

Once you have done all the above steps, your repository should look like this:

We have git remote set-URL and we’ve done some configurations for remotes in the.git/config file. Now, we can do whatever we want with this newly created local point (which also has our repository in it) and everything will be pushed and pulled from it in one go. We can even use different branches to develop in different environments (dеv, staging, production, etc.). We’ll discuss that more when we build our docker image.

22Apr

How to Create Branch in Git

April 22, 2022 admin

Branching in Git means to diverge from the main developing line and make changes in different branches. This is done to not disturb the development process in the mainline. Branching operations in Git are simpler and instantaneous. It can merge unlimited branches in a single day that aids the workforce. Git saves data as snapshots by storing commit objects.

Creating new branches gives the developer a new area to perform in away from a single branch. It can be used for various purposes. For multiple collaborators in a git repository, a unique branch can be created for each of them. Then the code can be committed to that specific branch to avoid overwriting.

Find the Number of Branches Present

On a standard terminal, simply typing ‘git status‘ can tell the user which branches they are currently on. To check remote branches, the command ‘git branch -r’ should be used. To check both local and remote branches, ‘git branch -a‘ has to be run.

To check all existing branches and new branches created, the user must type ‘git branch –list‘. This will list all the branches created and star mark the branch the user is currently on. For example, if the user is on the branch ‘master’ and has created a branch name ‘beta’, the list will show beta and *master.

Default branch- The default branch is ‘master’ for all developers.

How to Create Branches

After creating a remote repository on the github and connecting them to the local repository, new branches can be created. To create a new branch, the user needs to type ‘git branch branch-name’. The branch name should be normal to avoid getting any errors or any unnecessary confirmation messages.

Branches can also be made manually on the git repository. However, it is advised that users should manage such actions inside the terminal because of more control and lesser risk of mistakes. Also, the common line tool is faster than a graphic user interface.

Git checkout

A checkout is used in Git to change target entities. This command operates among files, commits, and branches. To switch to the new branch created, the user needs to type ‘git checkout branch-name’. Therefore, in the previous case, the command ‘git checkout beta‘ needs to be typed. To remove old commits and files from the working and updating commands, ‘git checkout’ has to be used. Git checkout command changes the target of the main reference, which makes it an essential Git tool.

Git clone- Often confused with git checkout, git clone fetches a code from the remote workplace but doesn’t have the functionality of switching between two codes.

Shortcut- To avoid the above lengthy process, a branch name can also be created in one go. The user needs to type the command, ‘git checkout -b branch name‘. The -b specifies that the user needs to create a branch. By using such shortcuts, users can switch directly to a new branch.

The Process of Using Branches

Git supports the branch concept that allows users to create various branches of code to develop codes on all of them. After the final product is complete, all these branches can be merged into one file. The default branch for any user is ‘master’. For example, a code the user is experimenting on is on ‘master’. Then, he has to add that code to the new branch created and then ‘commit’ the changes to the new branch.

Commit changes

To commit changes into the newly created branch, the command is ‘git commit -m new code’. However, to change codes in the master branch, users would need to check out from the new branch and then make necessary changes. This is because changes made in the new branch are not saved in the master branch.

Merging various branches

Merging means putting different independent branches into a single branch. Git can’t automatically merge separate branches when a merge commit is created. When data has been changed in both branches, it can’t combine them because of its version control conflict feature. In such cases, conflicts have to be resolved manually. A few steps are needed before starting the merging process. The main receiving branch should be determined beforehand. Also, remote changes should be updated in both receiving and merging branches.

To merge two branches, users first need to go to the base branch. By simply running the command ‘Git merge new branch’, the new branch is included in the master branch. After doing this, the interface will ask the commit message, which is ‘:wq’. This will save the commit message, and merging would finally be complete. To see changes, ‘git log‘ must be typed to show all the new codes added to previous ones.

Fast forward merge

This occurs when there is a linear path between the current and main branches. The branches can be combined automatically as commits from the main branch are now present in the current one. This is not possible in a three-way merge because of specific commits binding their histories. Many developers use fast-forward merging strategies to fix minor errors through rebasing. Three-way merges are used for lengthy features.

Git push

Simply running ‘git status‘ wouldn’t register the new branch and might not show how many branches there are in the local environment. This is where git push is used.

This simply means that users are pushing the currently active branch. Users can also push branches directly to the origin using the code ‘git push –set-upstream origin beta‘ (i.e., the new branch name). This command will now update the new branch created on the repository. Users can then switch to the new branch and see or create new codes within it.

Git push is used only when the local branch is already present. However, to get the list of all branches from the remote repository, the ‘git pull‘ command has to be run.

Deleting a branch

For deleting a branch, the command ‘git branch -d branch name‘ has to be run. For unmerged branches, instead of -d, -D (capital) can be used. To remove a remote branch, ‘git push origin –delete branch-name has to be run.

Conclusion

Creating and deleting branches in Git is more accessible than other VCS tools, as mentioned before. This is because git files are simple and have 40-character SHA-1, which is cheap to create. Earlier, VCS tools included copying project files into another directory which required a lot of time. However, in Git, the process is quick.

Functions like the git checkout help navigation of independent branches. It updates the versions in the working directory by recording new commits to the branch. A new branch for a new feature can be used in Git, which makes experimenting easier. These features provide a flexible workforce and encourage developers to use branches often.

13Apr

What is a Storage Area Network?

April 13, 2022 admin

Every computer network that we have heard about has a specific storage area. The old, traditional networks didn’t have any specified destination; rather they were often stored in a scattered manner across different workgroups and organizations. Some of the network storage was found inside the file server while the others were connected directly to the individual file servers. As a result, the whole network storing process turned out to be burdensome and complex. And eventually, the server environment became insecure and impossible to consolidate.

Here comes the notion of Storage Area Network and soon it overwhelmed all these problems by shifting the storage resources and relocating those storage resources into an autonomous, high-performing network. It consolidates the server environment by joining the storage devices and subsystems. The connection is done through several switches and hubs in such a way that it can form a fabric. This decreases redundancy and the storage performance of the network is increased by introducing a fast interface fiber Channel, like 2 Gbps or 4 Gbps. A Storage Area Network provides several storage features, like disk mirroring, data backup or data restoration, data archiving or data retrieval, security, data protection, disaster recovery, and data migration.

The article will give you a brief knowledge about Storage Area Network and its properties. So without further ado let us quickly look at them.

What is a Storage Area Network?

A Storage Area Network or SAN is an independent high-performing block storage network that connects multiple storage devices to different servers and manages structured workloads. The storage area network also shares a group of resources with the servers. It was purposely assembled for heavy workloads that have low latency tolerance and require good performance. A SAN comprises an array of SAN switches, server hosts, storage devices, and cables that can be attached to various computer services via different technologies and protocols. Every switch and storage device that is present on the Storage Area Network must have a connection between them.

The Storage Area Network systems are considered one of the best in the industry because of their ability to manage intensive workloads, high-speed architecture, and varied range of use cases and applications. The usages of Storage Area Network are rapidly increasing among the enterprises to deal with critical business-related applications as it has very low latency and provides good throughput. The deployment of SAN has gained momentum due to its high-performance ratio, low latency, less redundancy, and marginal spinning cost.

A SAN bestows the storage systems to a host in a simple way that the storage seems to be locally assigned and this presentation is achieved by using different types of virtualization. A SAN covers up to 66% of the whole network storage market. Their design makes them resilient and extremely demanding in the market. They are also capable of reducing failures to the storage as well as other components.

The architecture of Storage Area Network

A Storage Area Network is divided into three distinctive layers:

The Host Layer: The servers that are connected to the storage infrastructure fall under the host layer. This layer regulates structured workloads that are required to get access into the obstructed storage area.

The Fabric Layer: The communication forum that is used for SANs falls under the fabric layer. It creates an interconnection between the host and the storage through network devices and switches.

The Storage Layer: This layer is exclusively made to store various resources collected from different storage pools. The storage of the resources can be in any form such as consolidated HDDs, flash SSDs, and in the form of Non-Volatile Memory.

How Does a Storage Area Network Work?

Often regarded as the network behind the computer servers, a Storage Area Network involves a communication infrastructure, which helps to build an any-to-any device to bridge physical connections across the computer network. The connection is done through interrelated components, like switches, hubs, and directors. The concept of SAN is a further extension of the traditional storage bus notion. In SAN, the storage devices and servers are allowed to build a connection between themselves through a Local Area Network (LAN) or Wide Area Network (WAN). The operation of storage elements, computer systems, storage devices, and connections are monitored inside the management layer of a SAN. This layer also guarantees protection and vigorous data transfers.

A SAN typically uses a fiber Channel to connect servers to different storage devices and this connection is made by creating new methods. The methods allow connecting an array of shared storage to different servers and also help them to evade the traditional network traffic. The interconnection is achieved in the following three ways:

Server-to-Storage

Through this interconnection method, several servers can gain access to one single storage device either successively or simultaneously.

Server-to-Server

A Server-to-Server model is used for multiple servers for internal communication as it provides great speed, minimal latency, and high-end communication.

Storage-to-Storage

The main advantage of this method is that it produces maximum ability to transfer data without the intervention of the server or device mirroring. This makes space in the server processor cycle so that it can participate in other activities, like application processing.

Importance of Storage Area Network

Most organizations and workgroups feel that the general computer memory and local area storage are not enough for storing files and providing security and it also decreases the speed and overall performance of the application. So, the organizations acquired the service of Storage Area Network in search of additional storage areas. A SAN can improve an organization in the following ways:

Enhanced Disk Utilization: A SAN along with the network-attached storage (NAS) is well capable of delivering enhanced efficiency and improved data management.

Flexibility: The introduction of SAN brings more stability to the server and it also removes the traditional linking between a file server and storage.

Improved Storage Management: A SAN manages the storage system of the devices by removing the blockage in the bandwidth.

Consistency: The algorithms that are used by a SAN for data protection allow them to provide data consistency and suitability.

Disaster Recovery (DR): A SAN helps to retrieve data in case of a failure in the storage device.

Quick Backup: A SAN makes room for hardware-based copies of data which allows it to back up huge amounts of data in less time.

Types of Storage Area Network Protocols

A Storage Area Network Protocol regulates communication between storage devices and SAN switches. It may use a single protocol or multiple protocols for connections. Several storage devices prefer multiprotocol routers and devices. The accessibility and usability of multiprotocol routers and devices solely depend on the manufacturer. Here are some of the most common Storage Area Network Protocols:

fiber Channel Protocol (FCP): Primarily introduced for the supercomputer field, fiber Channel Protocol is regarded as the most used SAN protocol in the market. Due to its higher throughput, FCP is deployed up to 70% to 80% of the total storage network. This connection uses fiber Channel for transporting along with fixed SCSI commands.

Internet Small Computer System Interface (iSCSI): This protocol is deployed over 10% to 15% of the total marketplace. Here, the SCSI commands are enclosed within an Ethernet frame and for transporting data it uses an IP Ethernet network.

fiber Channel over Ethernet (FCoE): fiber Channel over Ethernet is deployed in less than 5% of the total SAN market area. Like iSCSI, FCoE also encloses an FC frame within the Ethernet datagram and uses an IP Ethernet network for transport-related works.

Non-Volatile Memory Express over fiber Channel (FC-NVMe): This is an interface protocol that is used to acquire the services of flash storage via a PCI Express (PCIe) bus. NVMe hosts several queues that allow storing thousands of commands simultaneously.

What is a SAN Switch?

A SAN switch is often considered the main constituent of a Storage Area Network. It is hardware that is used for transferring storage traffic between servers and storage pools. A switch creates a Storage Area Network by joining numerous host servers that comprise storage devices and servers. Some SAN switches act as separate devices to create a SAN fabric while the rest of the switches are used to create a superior SAN fabric. A SAN switch enhances the number of potential connections in a storage network. A Host Bus Adapter card (HBA) is used by the fiber Channel to make a connection between the switches and the file servers.

How to Initiate a Storage Area Network?

The process of implementing a SAN is slightly different from other networks. Follow the below-mentioned steps to initiate the services of a Storage Area Network.

Step 1: Separately connect the storage devices among themselves so that it looks like a shared storage pool.

Step 2: In the middle of the computer server and the storage pool, add a fiber switch.

Step 3: Take a fiber cable and join every device with the fiber switch.

Step 4: Then again using those fiber cables, join all the computer servers with a fiber switch.

Step 5: Finally for communication, assign a Host Bus Adapter card (HBA) to every server and storage pool.

Pros of Storage Area Network

The advantages of a Storage Area Network are:

Storage Virtualization: The file server is not connected to any single storage device rather there are numerous storage pools in the network for accessing the required software applications.

Superior Performance: The main motto of a SAN is to meet the storage tasks of the organization. The fiber Channel of the SAN fabric helps to produce a performance of the highest order.

Maximum Availability: The storage availability of SAN to maintain critical workload is immense and the network is well proficient to build an interconnection between every presented host server.

High Speed: The fiber cable that is used in SAN helps to provide high data recovery speed. Data transfer in SAN can be done from both, storage-to-storage through direct data communication and from source-to-destination through minimal interference of the server.

Scalability: Scalability is another benefit of a Storage Area Network. In SAN there are several thousands of servers and devices available to generate large volume deployments. There is also scope for adding new server hosts and storage areas to meet the further requirements of the organization.

Cons of Storage Area Network

The disadvantages of a Storage Area Network are:

Complexity: A traditional SAN used to have an array of switches, host servers, specified HBAs, cables, dismissed fabrics, multiple ports for storage processing. This made the overall design of the network complex. Even the SAN that we used today requires intensive care since the complexity can be a worrying factor for the organizers and enterprises.

Management Issues: As discussed in the above point, the hardware complexity of SAN can be difficult to manage. The advanced management features of SAN, like LUN mapping or zoning, can be troublesome for IT organizations. So, to avoid these issues and protect the network, forming a RAID and other remedial technologies is very important. Additionally, setting up these components can be laborious but inevitable considering the circumstances.

Requires Large Servers: SAN always demands a large number of servers as it fails to work with fewer servers in high traffic areas.

Expensive: Compared to other networks, SAN is expensive as it uses fiber cable and fiber switches, which are very costly in the market.

Data Leakage: There are chances of data leakage in SAN as here multiple network servers share the same storage data.Applications of Storage Area Network

SANs are often deployed by modern enterprises to gain maximum benefit and generate high-performing applications. The applications of a Storage Area Network are:

Oracle Databases: SANs are used in oracle databases as they always require high obtainability and superior performance.

Microsoft SQL Server Databases: To generate maximum value for their enterprises, the MS SQL Server databases also use SANs, as they need the best performance and convenience.

Virtual Desktop Infrastructure (VDIs): SANs are used by large virtual desktop infrastructures as they require huge space to accommodate the users. The VDI environment requires as many as several hundreds of thousands of virtual desktops for the users. Thus, by consolidating the desktops, enterprises can achieve data security.

Virtualization Deployments: Because of its performance skill and high reliability, SANs are used during large virtualization deployments that are generated with the help of VMware or a Kernel-based Virtual Machine, or a Microsoft Hyper-V.

Other ERP or CRM environments: There are several Enterprise Resource Planning and Customer Relationship Management environments that require a design similar to that of a SAN for their critical workloads.

Conclusion

The technologies of the Storage Area Network are widely available in the market for storage and data management purposes. It operates and creates an interface for the client servers, storage devices, and data storage pools. It also ports the storage devices, cables, and switches. The SAN software is also able to manage the components, host servers, and interconnected devices that are present in the software area network. SANs also regulate the mapping services of numerous devices and switches. It also controls the partition for logical SAN. Nowadays, the technologies of SAN are used in almost every office and organization.

This article gives detailed information about the software area network, how it works, its advantages, and disadvantages. Considering all the major factors about SAN, this storage networking system can be very helpful for enterprise resource scheduling and to meet the workloads of the client.

07Apr

How to Install Ruby on Ubuntu 18.04?

April 7, 2022 admin

Ruby is one of the most popular programming languages among web developers since it is mainly used to create web applications.

Ruby is a general-purpose language with several other applications like prototyping, data analysis, and many more.

The main reason why people prefer Ruby on Ubuntu is that most of the code is written on a Linux server. Ubuntu is the most accessible Linux distribution.

We will show you how to install Ruby on Ubuntu 18.04 in three different ways in this article. They are from Ubuntu Repository and two other third-party tools or websites – RVM and rbenv.

All these methods of installation of Ruby have their own sets of advantages, although nowadays, people prefer using rbenv for installing Ruby.

1. Installing Ruby from Ubuntu Repository

It is pretty easy to install Ruby from the Ubuntu Repository. To install Ruby from Ubuntu Repository, follow these simple steps given below:-

Before you install the newest version of Ruby on Ubuntu 18.04, make sure that the package repository cache has been cleared. You can do so by typing in the following command:-

sudo apt update

We need to open the Terminal. So, for that, we can either click ctrl + alt + t, keyboard shortcut, or by searching “terminal” in Ubuntu dash, and finally selecting the terminal icon that appeared on the screen.
Once the above steps are done, one can proceed with the installation of Ruby on Ubuntu 18.04 by typing in the following command:-

sudo apt install ruby-full

After typing the above command, type y and click the “Enter” button for verifying the installation.

To finally verify whether the installation was successful or not, you can type the command:-

ruby –v

You will receive an output that will show us the version of the Ruby installed.

ruby 2.5.1p57 (2018-03-29 revision 63029) [x86_64-linux-gnu] So the version downloaded in Ruby 2.5.1

2. Installing Ruby with RVM

Also known as Ruby Version Manager, RVM is a command-line tool for managing, installing, and using Ruby versions when performing work. Firstly, we have to install GPG before installing Ruby from RVM. Then we proceed as follows:-

a. Installing GPG

To install GPG, one first needs to run the following command:-

sudo apt install GnuPG

Then, we need to install keys using the following code:-

gpg –keyserver hkp://pool.sks-keyservers.net –recv-keys 409B6B1796C275462A1703113804BB82D39DC0E3 7D2BAF1CF37B13E2069D6956105BD0E739499BD

b. Installing Software Prerequisites

Enter the following command to install software prerequisites:-

sudo apt install software-properties-common

After this, one also needs to add a PPA repository for running Ruby on Ubuntu:-

sudo apt-add-repository -y ppa:rael-gc/rvm

iii. Finally, to install RVM using the following two codes:-

sudo apt update

sudo apt install rpm

After doing the above steps, it is advisable to restart your device for the smooth working of Ruby.

c. Installing Ruby

Once the command line – RVM is successfully installed, one can install Ruby by a single code.

rvm install 2.5.1

One can download any version by changing the performance in the above code. For this instance, after installing Ruby version 2.5.1, use the below given command to check the installed version of the Ruby:-

ruby –v

You will receive an output that will show us the version of the Ruby installed.

ruby 2.5.1p57 (2018-03-29 revision 63029) [x86_64-linux-gnu]

So the version downloaded in Ruby 2.5.1

3. Installing Ruby with the help of rbenv

Ruby Version Management or simply rbenv is a third-party tool that allows us to switch between various versions of Ruby quickly and simply. It is not possible to directly install Ruby from the default rbenv, so one needs to install ruby-build. Simply put, Ruby is a plugin that works with rbenv build, a tool that helps us install any version of Ruby. To install Ruby using the following steps:-

a. So, first of all, we need to install and update specific packages that are essential for the proper functioning of the ruby-build tool: –

sudo apt update

sudo apt install git curl libssl-dev libreadline-dev zlib1g-dev autoconf bison build-essential libyaml-dev libreadline-dev libncurses5-dev libffi-dev libgdbm-dev

b. To install rbenv and ruby-build, one has to type the following command:-

curl -sL https://github.com/rbenv/rbenv-installer/raw/master/bin/rbenv-installer | bash –

The above code helps to create a copy of both rbenv and ruby-build repositories from Github.

c. After this, we need to add the following code to the user Path

$HOME/.rbenv/bin

d. Depending upon which shell or command language interpreter you use, you need to type the following codes:-

If your shell or command language interpreter is BASH, then type in:-

echo ‘export PATH=”$HOME/.rbenv/bin:$PATH”‘ >> ~/.bashrc

echo ‘eval “$(rbenv init -)”‘ >> ~/.bashrc

source ~/.bashrc

If your shell or command language interpreter is Zsh, then type in:-

echo ‘export PATH=”$HOME/.rbenv/bin:$PATH”‘ >> ~/.zshrc

echo ‘eval “$(rbenv init -)”‘ >> ~/.zshrc

source ~/.zshrc

e. To install the latest version of Ruby and to make it the default version type the following code:-

rbenv install 2.5.1

rbenv global 2.5.1

Now, you need to verify whether you have appropriately installed Ruby by checking the version of Ruby installed:-

ruby –v

You will receive an output that will show us the version of the Ruby installed.

ruby 2.5.1p57 (2018-03-29 revision 63029) [x86_64-linux-gnu]

So the version downloaded in Ruby 2.5.1

Update Ruby Gems Package Manager

Ruby libraries can be installed and managed with Ruby Gems package manager. Ruby Gems contain Ruby code that can be shared. Ruby Gems are primarily used as libraries, which help us install any package of our choice. For that, one should update Ruby using the following code:-

gem update –system

Installing Ruby on Rails

One may want to install a complete Ruby on Rails stack. App development stacks are the most widely used. Rails is the development framework for Ruby program language, which facilitates app development the quickest way possible.

gem install rails -v 6.1.3.2

If you’re using rbenv, you’ll need to run the following command to make the rails executable available:

rbenv rehash

Now that you’ve installed Rails, you can run the rails -v command to make sure you have everything installed correctly:

rails -v

# Rails 6.1.3.2

There are three different ways by which you can install Ruby on your Ubuntu 18.04 server, with each having its pros and cons. So, installing Ruby using any of the above methods depends entirely on you.

You might have understood that installing Ruby from the Ubuntu repository is comparatively easy. On the other hand, using third-party tools like rbenv and RVM helps install and uninstall the various versions of Ruby quite efficiently and quickly.

To enjoy all the features of Ruby efficiently, it is recommended to use the newest version and updates of the same. As many new updates and technology are coming up daily, it’s crucial to update rbenv so that Ruby runs efficiently.

One can do this by simply using the git pull command:

cd ~/.rbenv

git pull

If you are using a third-party tool then simply install the tool and make the required settings using the code. Then install Ruby and check whether you have successfully installed Ruby on Ubuntu 18.04 server.

Conclusion

There are three different ways by which you can install Ruby on Ubuntu 18.04 server, with each having its pros and cons. Ruby being a popular programming language for web development and other uses is very important to download. Therefore, you can install Ruby on Ubuntu using any of the methods described above. The method you choose to use to install Ruby is entirely up to you.

Ruby can be easily installed in Ubuntu using the repository, but third-party tools such as rbenv and RVM can be used to efficiently and reliably install and uninstall the various Ruby versions. If you prefer to use all the available features of Ruby, it would be a good idea to download the latest version of it. If the above steps are followed properly, installing Ruby on Ubuntu 18.04 server is very easy.

31Mar

How to Install Git on Ubuntu?

March 31, 2022 admin

For every developer and programmer, source code is like life. They spend most of their time writing it, testing it, debugging it, etc. Therefore, they must be aware of any changes made in it. When you are working on a program all by yourself, keeping track of the changes in source code is no big deal.

However, the problem arises when you are working in a team, and the changes in source code are infinite. In such a case, if a problem arises, you need to know the reason behind it. It can be due to changes made in the source code, and to track the changes; you need Git. Git has become the synonym of the version control system and is used widely by DevOps teams around the world.

In the tech world, Git is a technology everyone knows about and uses. Still, the question as to how to install Git on Ubuntu is very frequently asked. This guide is going to answer this question of yours. Here you will learn about Git and the methods to install Git on Ubuntu. The guide also includes processes to install Git on Ubuntu 18.04 and Ubuntu 20.04.

What is Git?

Being a programmer, developer, or a part of a development team, you must be aware of Git, but a little introduction for the beginners will not hurt.

It is a version control system. But what does it do? Git records changes in your source code. It is a tool that manages a repository that records changes made to the source code over some time. Every modification can be tracked with Git, and developers can go back to the older version to check the mistakes made if any.

What makes Git a favorite among the users is that it works well with several operating systems and Integrated Development Environments. Plus, it allows Distributed version control, i.e., every developer can have a working copy of code. It is secure, its performance is unmatched, and it is designed keeping in mind the flexibility.

How to Install Git on Ubuntu?

Now that you have learned about Git and what it does for you, it is time to learn how to install Git on Ubuntu. As said earlier, this guide talks about installing Git on Ubuntu 18.04 and Ubuntu 20.04. You can install Git in two ways:

Install with Apt
Install from Source

You will learn about installing Git for both versions in both ways.

Let’s talk about installing Git on Ubuntu 18.04 first.

How to Install Git on Ubuntu 18.04?

What you need to install Git on Ubuntu 18.04 are the Ubuntu server and a non-root user with sudo privileges.

Installing with Apt

The easiest way to install Git is to install it with default packages with apt. So, if you want to install Git quickly and easily, it is recommended to install Git with apt. Before going further, check if Git is installed on your Ubuntu system already.

Use the command:

git – – version

The result will look something like this:

git version 2.20.5

It will return the version installed on your system if any. Else, you can move on and follow the steps:

Update the package with:

sudo apt update

Run the following command to install Git:

sudo apt install git

Check the installation with:

git – – version

The output will reflect the latest Git version installed, e.g.

git version 2.17.1

With this the installation of Git on your Ubuntu 18.04 server is complete.

Installing from the Source

It is the second option to install Git from the source which installs the latest version of Git for you. If you install Git this way, you can’t use the apt package manager.

Start by installing the dependencies required:

sudo apt update

sudo apt install make libssl-dev libghc-zlib-dev libcurl4-gnutls-dev libexpat1-dev gettext unzip

Open the browser window after the installation completes and go to GitHub, to Git Project’s mirror. Here you will see a list of the Git releases and their release links. The files end with tar.gz. Choose the version you want to install. For example, you can choose Git 2.23.0.

Change the directory with /usr/src as all the source files are commonly placed here:

cd /usr/src/

Download the selected version of Git with:

sudo wget https://github.com/git/git/archive/v2.23.0.tar.gz -O git.tar.gz

Extract this file in the source directory with:

sudo tar -xf git.tar.gz

cd git-*

Execute these two commands to install Git:

sudo make prefix=/usr/local all

sudo make prefix=/usr/local install

Check the Git version installed on your Ubuntu 18.04 server by running.

git –version

It will return the output as:

git version 2.23.0

Done. You have learned to install git with two methods. Let’s move ahead.

Configuring Git on Ubuntu 18.04

Git is installed on your system, and now you must configure it with your information so that it starts working.

Set your username and email address with:

git config –global user.name “Your Name”

git config –global user.email “youremail@yourdomain.com”

Verify the changes with:

git config –list

It will return your details:

user.name=Your Name

user.email=youremail@yourdomain.com

~/ . gitconfig file stores the config settings which look like:

[user]

name = Your Name

email = youremail@yourdomain.com

It is also possible to make changes to the config file manually or by using the git config command. That is all for Ubuntu 18.04.

How to Install Git on Ubuntu 20.04?

Once again, these are the same two methods to install Git on Ubuntu 20.04. First, check if you are already running a Git version on your system, as you did in the previous section. If it is not, use any of the following methods to install Git on Ubuntu 20.04.

You need an Ubuntu 20.04 server with a sudo privileged non-root user.

The two methods to install Git on Ubuntu 20.04 are:

Installing Git with Apt
Installing Git from Source

Installing with Apt

Let’s start with the easiest way first.

Update your package with:

sudo apt update

Install Git after updation:

sudo apt install git

Check that you have correctly installed Git with:

git –version

It will show the result with whatever version you have installed e.g. 2.25.1:

git version 2.25.1

This is it.

Installing Git from Source

If you want greater control over options, want to customize Git, or get the latest release, you should choose to install Git from the source. Apt package manager can’t help you here to manage it.

Start with installing the Git dependencies:

sudo apt update

sudo apt install libz-dev libssl-dev libcurl4-gnutls-dev libexpat1-dev gettext cmake gcc

You need a temporary directory to download Git which can be created with:

mkdir tmp

cd /tmp

Now go to the Git website and navigate to the section to find the download versions of Git. Choose the latest one, such as 2.31.1, and download it with curl in the following manner:

curl -o git.tar.gz https://mirrors.edge.kernel.org/pub/software/scm/git/git-2.31.1.tar.gz

Unpack the tarball file with:

tar -zxf git.tar.gz

Move to the directory you created earlier:

cd git-*

With the following two commands, install Git:

make prefix=/usr/local all

sudo make prefix=/usr/local install

To use the latest installed version, replace the shell process with:

exec bash

Check the version with:

git –version

It will reflect the result as:

git version 2.31.1

The installation is complete.

Configuring Git on Ubuntu 20.04

After installation, you must configure Git to get started. Git config command is used for configuration. Your name and email address will be required. You can configure Git with this command:

git config –global user.name “Your Name”

git config –global user.email “youremail@domain.com”

You can check it with:

git config –list

It will show the result as:

user.name=Your Name

user.email=youremail@domain.com

…

The configuration is now complete, and you are all set to use Git.

Conclusion

The small tools in the tech world can prove to be very helpful. Git is one of those tools. Keeping track of the changes in the source code is crucial in the present times when technology plays a vital role in allowing shared working. Git allows you to turn the clock back and go to the previous versions of the code and debug the code, check the changes made and by whom, etc.

Today, DevOps find it extremely crucial to use Git. This version control system has become the synonym of performance, security, and flexibility. Installing it on your system is very easy, provided that you have a non-root user with sudo privileges. This guide has covered two different methods for each of the Ubuntu server versions — version 18.04 and version 20.04. Along with learning how to install Git on Ubuntu, you can also learn how to configure it with your personal information. The quick and easy steps are not hard to follow, and you will not face any difficulty installing Git on Ubuntu.

25Mar

AWS Interview Questions

March 25, 2022 admin

Cloud technology has been adopted by many companies since its introduction. Amazon Web Services is one of the cloud computing services that Amazon offers. It is widely used and has the largest market share globally. As it has been adopted a lot, there is also an increase in the demand for professionals who will be able to fill the talent gap and will be able to build, test, and deploy applications on AWS. If you are thinking of pursuing a career in AWS cloud computing, then you should understand its basics and concept for further learning.

Here, we have mentioned some frequently asked questions in interviews. You can go through them and prepare yourself for this technology.

1. Explain AWS (Amazon Web Services).

AWS offers cloud computing solutions and APIs to various organizations globally. Not only the cloud services, but AWS also provides other services such as computation power, database services, content delivery, etc. Organizations use these services on a pay-per-use basis and have to pay only for used services.

With the help of the AWS tools and services, any organization is able to create a distributed computing environment. AWS was launched in 2002 (web services) and 2006 (cloud computing). There are many cloud computing platforms in the market. But the most flexible and cost-effective cloud computing solution is AWS. Currently, AWS offers more than 200 services and products. Many of their services are not directly accessible to the end-users but AWS offers developer APIs for it. AWS provides web services that are also widely used over HTTP for business purposes.

2. What is Amazon Elastic Compute Cloud (EC2) and its Features?

EC2 comes as a part of the AWS services and allows the users to rent virtual computers and run their programs. It helps the users to deploy large-scale applications and boot an AMI (Amazon Machine Language) for accessing the VM. It helps in launching, creating, and stopping server instances for your organization. Using EC2, you need to pay for a second for every active server. Below are some of its features-

You can leverage the persistent storage and elastic IP address.
EC2 offers a service named Amazon CloudWatch for monitoring the utilization of the resources like CPU, network, database replicas, etc.
It offers an auto-scaling feature allowing you to scale as per the changing traffic.

3. What are the Pricing Models of the Amazon EC2 instance?

It is considered to be an important AWS interview question. EC2 instance comes with four types of pricing models that are mentioned below:

On-demand instance – On-demand pricing or also known as the pay-as-you-go model. It allows the user to pay only for the resources/services that are being used. You will have to pay by second/hour depending on the instances. The on-demand pricing model is beneficial if you have short working hours and unpredictable as they do not require any upfront payment.
Reserved instance – It is the best pricing model to consider if you have a prerequisite for your upcoming requirements. Firms calculate their future EC2 requirements and pay in the beginning to get up to 75% discount which is huge for any business. Reserved instances will save computing capacity for you, and they can be used whenever you want.
Spot Instance – If you want an extra amount of computing capacity immediately, organizations can go for spot instances offering up to a 90% discount. You will get a heavy discount on the unused computing capacity
Dedicated hosts – A customer can reserve a physical EC2 server with this pricing model.

4. What is Amazon S3?

S3 stands for (Simple Storage Service), which offers scalable object storage space to IT companies. It is one of the earliest services being offered by AWS. S3 comes with an easy-to-use web services interface, allowing users to store and retrieve data from remote locations. S3 has buckets for storing files/data. A universal namespace allows users to create buckets by entering their names. On successfully uploading the file to the assigned S3 bucket, you will receive an HTTP 200 code. Each bucket has a unique name that will generate a unique DNS address. S3 allows users to download the stored data and secure that data using an authentication mechanism to avoid breaches.

5. Explain different types of cloud service models.

There are three different types of cloud services models that we have mentioned below:

IaaS – Infrastructure as a Service (IaaS) provides users with access to virtual desktops and servers over the Internet. With this model, a service provider hosts the server, storage, hardware, etc. on behalf of the users. IaaS platforms are highly scalable and can adapt to changing workloads. IaaS providers handle tasks such as system maintenance, backup, and resilience on behalf of their users.
Platform as a Service (PaaS) allows service providers to deliver software and hardware tools to their customers. The service model can be used for application development, and anyone can obtain the desired applications from the service provider via the internet. By using PaaS, users do not have to maintain software/hardware in-house for development and testing.
Software as a Service (SaaS) provides on-demand software distribution.

6. What is AWS ‘s auto-scaling feature?

The auto-scaling feature in AWS EC2 helps in scaling the computing capacity automatically as per the changing business needs. It allows you to maintain a steady performance of business processes. It will take only a few minutes to scale multiple resources in AWS. Besides EC2, you can also scale other AWS resources and tools whenever required.

7. Explain the benefits of auto-scaling features.

Below we have mentioned the benefits of the EC2 auto-scaling feature:

AWS EC2 offers an easy way to configure auto-scaling. Checking the utilization level of different resources is possible within the same interface without having to switch to another console.
It helps in automating the scaling processes. It also keeps track of how a resource will respond to changes. In addition to adding resources, it also reduces compute capacity if this is not required.
If you have an unpredictable workload, the auto-scaling feature helps in optimizing the application performance.

8. What are S3 storage classes?

S3 storage classes ensure data integrity and assist in concurrent data loss. Every object that is stored within the S3 will have an associated respective storage class. It also helps in maintaining the object lifecycle, allowing automatic migration and thus saves cost.

9. Mention various types of S3 storage classes.

Four different types of S3 storage classes are mentioned as follows:

S3 Standard – The data is duplicated and stored across multiple devices in various facilities. If there is a loss of a maximum of 2 facilities at the same time, it can be coped up efficiently. It offers low latency and high throughput, which results in increased durability and availability.
This S3 Standard IA – ‘S3 Standard Infrequently Accessed’ is used in situations where you may not access your data frequently, but you must have fast access to it whenever you need it. Like S3 Standard, it ensures the sustain of data loss at a maximum of 2 facilities simultaneously.
S3 One Zone Infrequent Access – it is somehow similar to S3 Standard IA. The primary difference between S3 one zone infrequent access and the rest of the storage class is that it offers low availability, i.e., 99.5%. While the availability of S3 standard and standard IA is 99.99%.
S3 Glacier – it is one of the cheapest storage classes when compared to other storage classes. It is only used for archiving the data.

10. Explain Policy in AWS and its various Types.

A policy is an object in AWS that is associated with a respective resource. It helps in defining whether the user request will be granted or not. There are six different types of policies in AWS that are mentioned below:

Identity-based policies – it is related to a single user’s identity, multiple users, or any particular role. It stores the permissions in JSON format. They are also further divided into managed and inline policies.
Resource-based policies – it is related to the resources in AWS. For example S3 bucket.
Permissions boundaries – it defines the maximum number of permissions for an object/entity by identity-based policies.
SCP – SCP (Service Control Policies) is stored in JSON format. It helps in defining the maximum number of permissions concerning a firm/organization.
ACL – ACL (Access Control Lists) defines the principles in some other AWS account for accessing the resources. It is not stored in JSON format.
Session policies – Session policies help in limiting the number of permissions granted by a user’s identity-based policies.

11. Explain AWS VPC.

Amazon VPC (Virtual Private Cloud) helps users launch the AWS resources into a virtual network that is defined by the user only. Since the virtual network is defined by the user, they can also control the various aspects of the virtual network, such as the creation of subnet, IP address, etc.

Any organization can install the virtual network and leverage all the benefits offered by AWS. Not only this, they will also be able to create the routing tables (containing rules for defining the direction of the incoming traffic) for their virtual network. You can use the internet gateway of AWS VPC for establishing communication between the virtual network and the internet.

You can also access the Amazon VPC via various interfaces like AWS management console, AWS CLI (Command Line Interface), AWS SDKs, and Query API.

12. Mention various types of elastic load balancers in AWS.

Elastic load balancing in AWS has three different types of load balancers. The load balancers help in routing the incoming traffic in AWS. Here, we have mentioned three types of load balancers in AWS.

Application load balancer – this load balancer specifies the routing decisions that are made at the application layer. It helps in providing path-based routing at the HTTP/HTTPS (layer 7). It routes the incoming requests to various container instances. It can route a request to more than one port under the container instances.
Network load balancer – this load balancer specifies the decisions that are made at the transport layer (SSL/TCP). It works on a flow hash routing algorithm for determining the target on the port from the group of targets. After selecting the target, it establishes a TCP connection with that target based on the listener configuration.
Traditional load balancer – this load balancer will choose either the application layer or the transport layer. It allows the user to map a load balancer port to only one container instance (fixed mapping).

13. Explain NAT gateways in AWS.

NAT stands for Network Address Translation. It is an AWS service that allows you to connect an EC2 instance to the internet. Via NAT, you can use the EC2 instance in a private subnet. It also allows you to connect an EC2 instance to other AWS services.

Even though you can use the EC2 instance in a private subnet, connecting it to the internet via any other method will make it public. However, the NAT will maintain the private subnet while establishing a connection between the EC2 instance and the internet. Users can create NAT gateways or NAT instances to make a connection between EC2 instances and internet/AWS services.

As opposed to NAT instances, which are single EC2 instances, NAT gateways can be used across multiple availability zones. The amount of traffic allowed by a NAT instance depends on the size of the instance.

14. Explain the Amazon Aurora AWS RDS database.

Aurora database is strictly developed in AWS RDS, so you cannot run on any local device with an AWS infrastructure. This relational database is mostly preferred as it provides enhanced availability and speed.

15. Explain Amazon Redshift.

Redshift is a data warehouse service offered by Amazon and is deployed in the cloud. As compared to other data warehouses it is considered to be fast and highly. On average, Redshift offers around ten times more performance & speed than other data warehouses in the cloud. It works on technologies like machine learning, columnar storage, etc. ensuring its high stability and performance. Redshift allows you to scale up to petabytes and terabytes.

Redshift uses OLAP as its analytics processing system and has two nodes for storing data. It offers high speed using its advanced compression and parallel processing. It allows you to add new nodes in the warehouse. Redshift allows the developers to answer a query faster.

16. Explain AMI (Amazon Machine Image).

AMI stands for (Amazon Machine Image) and is used for creating a virtual machine within the EC2 environment. AMI is responsible for deploying the services that are delivered via EC2. The AMI has a read-only filesystem image that comprises an operating system. AMI also has launch permission that will specify which AWS account will launch the instances. While launching a process, the volumes that are attached to an instance are decided by block device mapping in AMI.

The AMI consists of three types of images.

A Public image is an AMI that can be used by any user/client, while users can also use the ‘Paid’ AMI. ‘Shared’ AMI ensures more flexibility to the developer.

17. Explain vertical scaling in AWS.

Whenever the RDS/EC2 servers change the size of the instance for scaling purposes, it is called vertical scaling. In this, we usually pick a larger instance size for scaling up in vertical scaling, while we select a smaller instance size for scaling down. The size of the instance is changed as per the changing demand.

18. Explain horizontal scaling in AWS.

In this type of scaling, the size of an instance is changed as per the requirements. It allows you to modify the number of nodes/instances in a system. The horizontal auto-scaling is based on the number of connections between an instance and the integrated ELB (Elastic Load Balancer).

19. Explain AWS CloudTrail.

AWS CloudTrail helps the users to audit their AWS account while ensuring the compliance and governance of the AWS account. Once you create an AWS account, CloudTrail starts working and keeps records of every activity on your account. You can monitor all the activities via the CloudTrail console. All the AWS services activities will also get recorded. It ensures that you will get enhanced visibility of your account.

20. Explain AWS Lambda.

AWS services offer a computing platform that does not require a server for performing and is called AWS Lambda. Whenever an event triggers, a code gets compiled on AWS Lambda and identifies the required resources for that code compilation. Lambda comes with the support for various languages like Python, Java, Node.js, and others. Using Lambda, you only have to pay for the time the code is getting compiled. It also runs code in response to the HTTP requests and will automatically manage the required resources like memory, CPU, disk space, and others.

21. Explain AWS Shield.

If you want to protect your applications that are running on the AWS from any DDoS attacks, then you can use AWS Shield. It will automatically identify the DDoS attack and will reduce the downtime and latency for the application. There is no need to involve the IT team as everything can be automated using the AWS Shiels. It ensures that all the users are subject to this type of protection. Apart from this, it ensures the real-time visibility and monitoring of the attack on your AWS application.

22. Explain AWS CloudWatch.

You can use the AWS CloudWatch for monitoring the real-time usage of the AWS services and resources. It uses various metrics to understand the usage of the services. By default, you can see various AWS service-related metrics on the dashboard of the AWS CloudWatch. You can even customize and choose the metrics that you want to see. You can access AWS CloudWatch via its console. AWS CLI, AWS SDKs. It also provides you the health details of the AWS services.

23. Mention various types of virtualization in AWS.

AWS supports three different types of virtualization.

HVM stands for Hardware Virtual Machine ensures complete virtualization of hardware providing each virtual hardware machine as an independent unit. After the AWS AMI virtualization, this virtual machine will run the master boot record for booting. The AWS machine image consists of the root block device that comes with the master boot record.
PV stands for paravirtualization that provides light virtualization as compared to HVM. you need to make some changes to the guest OS to perform anything in PV. Such modifications will allow the users to export scalable and modified hardware to the virtual machines.
PV on HVM helps in providing enhanced functionalities that allow the OS to access the storage, network I/O using host via PV on HVM.

24. Explain the cross-region replication service offered by AWS.

You can use cross-region replication for copying the data from one bucket to another. It makes sure that both the buckets are from different regions while copying the data. It allows the asynchronous copy of data between buckets in the same AWS management console. The bucket from which you are copying the data is called the source bucket and the other one is the destination bucket. You need to enable the versioning on both buckets. Once the data has been copied to the destination bucket, you cannot upload to replicate the same data from the source bucket.

25. Explain CloudFront CDN.

CloudFront CDN is a group of distributed servers that are used for delivering web content. The delivery is based on the geographic region of the user, web page origin, and the server. Make sure to define all the origins of the files being distributed using CDN. this origin can be an S3 bucket, AWS instance, etc. CloudFront ensures web distribution or RTMP. Web distribution ensures the delivery of websites and RTMP ensures the delivery of media streaming.

26. Explain AWS Web Application Firewall (WAF).

AWS offers a firewall service that helps in protecting web-based applications from being exploited. It helps in protecting the applications against bots that will reduce the application’s performance and eliminates the unnecessary consumption of the resources. It also helps in controlling the incoming traffic to the web applications. It allows users to create their traffic rules for restricting particular patterns of traffic for enhancing the performance of the applications. You can use the API offered by the AWS WAF for setting rules for the incoming traffic.

27. Explain Simple Notification Service by AWS.

AWS offers a service “Simple Notification Service” that helps in sending a message from one application to another. It is a cost-effective method for publishing messages from one application and sending them to another. It also helps in sending notifications to various mobile devices like Google, Windows phones, Apple, etc. It ensures the grouping of various types of endpoints. It allows several endpoints under one topic, for example, it can group Apple and Android recipients for sending messages to all subscribers.

28. Explain Amazon EMR.

Amazon offers an EMR (Elastic Map-reduce) service that helps in the data processing. This service consists of a group of EC2 instances called clusters. You can call a single EC2 instance within a cluster as a node that has a specific role attached to it. EMR also has a master node that will define the roles of other nodes present in the cluster. The master node will help in monitoring the node’s performance and its overall health.

29. Explain the S3 transfer acceleration service by Amazon.

With the help of this service, you will be able to upload the S3 quickly. This service will not upload the file directly to the S3 bucket but the nearest edge location. It uses a unique URL for uploading the file to the edge location and then transferring it to the required S3 bucket. It uses the CloudFront CDN for accelerating the uploads and optimizes the transfer process. The edge location will automatically transfer the file to the S3 bucket within no time. It also ensures a secure transfer between the clients and the S3 bucket.

30. Mention core services of Amazon Kinesis.

Amazon offers a data streaming platform known as Amazon Kinesis and it offers three core services as mentioned below.

Kinesis Streams – it helps in storing the data in shards containing the storage sections that are produced while data streaming. These shards can be accessed by the users to turn them into user data. Once the data has been accessed by users, it will get transferred to the AWS storage like DynamoDB, etc.
Kinesis Firehose- it helps in delivering the streaming data to various AWS destinations like S3 buckets, Redshift, etc.
Kinesis Analytics– it helps the users to analyze the streaming data and get insights. It allows you to run SQL queries on the stored data within the Kinesis Firehose.

31. Mention benefits of AWS RDS.

Below are the benefits of AWS RDS.

It allows you to control and modify the database services like CPU, storage, etc.
It helps in ensuring the automatic backup and making the latest config updates to the database.
It helps in creating and maintaining the backup instance that can be used in case of failure and prevents loss of the data.
It helps in creating RDS read replicas for distributing the read traffic from the source database.

32. Explain the difference between AWS CloudFormation and AWS Elastic Beanstalk.

AWS CloudFormation helps in provisioning the resources available in the cloud. It describes all the infrastructural resources. While Elastic Beanstalk helps in providing a suitable environment for deploying and operating the application.

CloudFormation helps in fulfilling the infrastructural needs of the running applications while Elastic Beanstalk helps in managing the application lifecycle that is deployed in the cloud. CloudFormation takes into account different types of applications, such as enterprise applications, legacy applications, etc., whereas Elastic Beanstalk does not consider the type of application when managing their lifecycle.

33. How does the AWS Config work with AWS CloudTrail.

CloudTrail helps in recording the user API activity in relation to the AWS account. It allows the user to monitor various API activities like response element, caller identity, etc. if you integrate the AWS config along with the CloudTrail, then you will be able to check the configuration details of the associated AWS resources. Both AWS config and CloudTrail will help in identifying if something is wrong with the usages of resources.

AWS config majorly focuses on the changes done to the resources while CloudTrail is more focused on the users that are making the changes. Both services can be used together for enhancing governance, compliance.

34. How not to lose Connectivity if AWS Direct Connect goes down?

To avoid such situations, you must have a backup AWS Direct Connect whenever the original setup fails. Having a backup will automatically shift the connectivity to the backup one. You can even apply the Bidirectional Forwarding Detection that will help you in detecting the failure situations and generate the backup. You can also configure a backup for an IPsec VPN connection that will automatically backup the traffic. If you are using the backup for the IPsec VPN connection then all the traffic will be redirected to the internet.

35. Explain volume in AWS.

Volume is the block-level storage in AWS that can be assigned to an EC2 instance. It works similar to the hard disk that is used for reading or writing the data. If you are using the volume, you need to pay for the data used as it ensures the measurement of the storage section.

36. Explain snapshots in AWS.

A snapshot is considered to be a view of the volume at a particular time. A screenshot is created, whenever you copy the data stored in volume to another location at a single point in time.

37. How to Handle a Failure that occurred during the AWS Lambda Processing.

If you are using the AWS Lambda service for processing the event in synchronous mode then you will get an exception being displayed on the application that you are using during failure. But if the event is being processed in the asynchronous mode, then the function will be called at least three times during failure.

38. Explain Amazon WordSpaces.

Amazon WorkSpaces ensures that you will get virtual or cloud-based desktops for working purposes. These desktops are known as workspaces. If you are using the Amazon WorkSpaces then you do not have to worry about deploying the physical hardware and software. Amazon WorkSpace allows you to install Microsoft Windows or Linux virtual desktops that can be accessed via many devices or web browsers.

It allows you to choose any type of hardware or software configuration. Also, Amazon offers you WAM (WorkSpaces Application Manager) that allows you to deploy and manage various applications on virtual desktops.

39. Explain AWS IAM.

IAM stands for Identity and Access management that helps the users by providing a secure way to access the AWS resources and services. It allows you to create a group of users and assign them a particular set of permissions. If you want to access the features of IAM then you can go to the AWS Management Console section of your AWS account.

40. Mention the difference between security groups and network access control list.

You can use the security groups for controlling the access to use the instances while the network access control list allows you to control the access at the subnet level. Using the network access control list, you will be able to add rules including both “allow” and “deny”, while with security groups, you can only add rules for “allow”.

41. Explain how an application load balancer is good for routing the incoming traffic.

Because it redirects the user’s request for image rendering to the image rendering servers while the request for general computing will be redirected to the computing servers. This will eventually balance the load on various servers.

42. How to manage the read contention on RDS MySQL.

You can manage it by installing the ElastiCache in various availability zones of the EC2 instances. This will create a cached version of the website in various zones. Later, you can add RDS MySQL read replicas to each availability zone for ensuring the website’s better performance. It will not load on the RDS MySQL instance thus solving the read contention issue. Due to the cached version of the website at each available zone allows the users to access it quickly.

43. How to ensure better performance while connecting the data center of your company to the Amazon cloud environment.

First, try to create a virtual private network and then connect the data center to it. Then you will be able to launch the AWS resources in the VPN using VPC. The VPN will then create a secure connection between the data center of the company and the AWS network. Also, make sure to create multiple backups of your company data before moving your data to the cloud.

44. What Approach will you use for Uploading 120 MB of files on Amazon S3.

If you want to upload a file with a size of more than 100 MB then you can leverage the benefits of the AWS S3 multipart upload utility. It allows you to upload the 120MB file into many parts. Each part will be uploaded as an individual part. Once each part is uploaded, it will be merged to get the original file. It reduces the uploading time. You can use AWS S3 commands to upload and download the file. With AWS S3 commands, you will be able to automatically do the multipart uploading/downloading after it evaluates the file size.

45. How will you add the email functionality on your application running on the AWS?

Amazon has a variety of services that will allow you to handle any scenario within AWS. if you want to add the email functionality to your AWS-based application, then you can use its Amazon SES (Simple Email Service) for this. It allows you to set up various types of email services like email forwarding, mass emailing, transactional emailing, etc. it allows a cost-effective solution for integrating the email functionality to all the applications running on the AWS. It is a secured method and allows you to send emails globally.

46. What are the Security Best Practices for Amazon EC2?

For implementing the secured Amazon EC2 best practices, you can follow the below-mentioned steps.

You can use the AWS identity and access management for access control to use your AWS resources
You can restrict the access and allow only the trusted hosts or networks for accessing various ports on your instance
You need to make sure that you check the security group rules regularly
You can set the open up permissions wherever you require
You can disable the password-based login.

47. Explain the difference between Stopping and Terminating an EC2 instance?

When we talk about stopping and terminating, there is a slight difference between the two. If we talk about stopping an EC2 instance, we mean it will be stopped according to the normal shutdown process. Terminating an EC2 instance, however, refers to the instance being in its stopped state, and all EBS volumes attached to the instance will be deleted.

48. How can you recover/login to an EC2 instance for which you have lost the key?

You can follow the below-mentioned steps for recovering the EC2 instance if you have lost the key:

Make sure you verify that the EC2Config service is running
First, detach the root volume for the instance
Then try to attach that root volume to a temporary instance
Make the required changes to the configuration file
Then restart the original instance

49. Explain some security products and features available in VPC?

Below are some security products and features:

Security groups – it is considered to be a firewall for the EC2 instances that control the inbound and outbound traffic at the instance level.
Network Access control lists – It is considered to be a firewall for the subnets that control the inbound and outbound traffic at the subnet level.
Flow logs – it helps in capturing the inbound and outbound traffic from the network interfaces in your VPC.

50. How can you add an existing instance to a new Auto Scaling group?

You can follow the below steps for adding an existing instance to a new Auto Scaling group:

First, you can open your EC2 console
Then select the required instance under Instances
Go to Actions -> Instance Settings -> Attach to Auto Scaling Group
Now go for a new Auto Scaling group
Now attach this group to your Instance
Make changes to the Instance if required
Now you have successfully added the instance to a new Auto Scaling group

Conclusion

AWS offers various job opportunities. AWS offers a variety of services which are being offered by this company. If you are unfamiliar with Amazon Web Services, you might want to take a look at the basics to familiarize yourself with it. This article will give you a basic understanding of what services it offers and where you can use them. To give you better practical knowledge, we have also included some scenarios.

23Mar

What is Malware?

March 23, 2022 admin

Security is the prime concern for every business. With the increase in online business, people tend to save their crucial business-related information at any cost. Most companies implement various security measures to protect the identity and important information of the users. Even with the online banking system and online transaction process, it is a necessity to have strong security measures to ensure complete data and system safety.

There are various types of malware or virus present in the industry that can impact the working and performance of your system in any way. Therefore, it becomes important to understand the types of malware present, what they do, and what part of the system they impact. The term ‘malware’ is derived from the words ‘malicious’ and ‘software’.

In this article, we will focus on what is malware, its various types, which type of industry is impacted the most, why cybercriminals use it, how do you know that your system is affected, and how you can protect the system against malware programs.

What is Malware?

Malware is malicious software that is meant to harm the computer system. It can be a virus, worms, trojans, ransomware, spyware, and others. Usually, cybercriminals use such malware to attack a specific system on the network and try to access its information to harm the performance of that system. Hackers use the Internet to spread malware, they either spam your emails with infected attachments or website links containing viruses.

Both private or personal systems are at risk from malware and can impact a business of any size. Therefore, you must keep your system updated and implement regular and frequent checks on the Internet content and emails to avoid the attack of malware on your system.

Well, malware and attackers are not always successful as many companies ensure complete security strategies are implemented to avoid being affected by malware. Also, they make sure to keep their attack surface as minimal as possible for the efficient working of the company without being compromised.

Types of Malware

Today, as technology has evolved, the ways to harm the systems are also increasing. Attackers are also becoming tech-savvy and using advanced methods to attack any system for accessing its crucial data over the network. They use various types of malware to impact the working of any system they want. Here, we have mentioned various malware types that are very commonly used.

1. Trojans

This malware enters into the system as a harmless file or application to perform harmful tasks. Different types of trojans perform different tasks like deleting any specific file of the system, downloading malicious code on the system, and others. It will eventually impact the performance of your system.

2. Ransomware

It is also known as the crypto trojan which will encrypt the data on a targeted system that can only be accessed by providing the right password. The password will not be provided by the hackers to the victim until they pay the ransom amount. It is considered to be the most dangerous malware of all time. Many companies have gone through such a situation where they had to pay a huge amount to hackers just for unblocking their important files. Some of the variants of ransomware that were used are WannaCry and Petya.

3. Computer worm

It is a computer program that will automatically propagate to the infected system and on the connected network and then perform harmful functions on the specified system. They perform tasks like deleting files, causing malfunction, and damaging the underlying hardware or software. It may also flood your system with irrelevant code. The most possible way of spreading this malware is through infected USB drives, email attachments, or virus-infected websites.

4. Computer virus

As a computer worm which is a standalone program affecting a system, the computer virus requires human interaction to spread. It can impact the existing file system and the boot sectors with the undesired code and content. They perform the same task as the computer worms. Apart from this, they will impact the performance of the system and slow down their performance, causing long-term damage to the system.

5. Backdoor

This type of malware is the hidden vulnerability in the program code that will impact the protection mechanism of the system and try to gain access to the login credentials for important data stored on the system. Hackers use intelligence services for including these backdoors within the program to access sensitive information. For example, in the past, Cisco networks were affected by the backdoors for getting the US secret service details.

6. Adware

Adware is unwanted programs or applications that will display the advertisements on the system or redirect a browser to dubious websites. This malware can get into the system by downloading a malicious program from the Internet or the infected websites. Once they enter your system, it takes a lot of effort to remove them from the system as they are deeply embedded into the system. Once you are attacked by adware, you can notice unwanted toolbars on your browser or unnecessary extensions.

7. Spyware

Such malware spies on the infected systems. They target valuable user details like passwords and other sensitive information. This type of malware can be entered via malicious channels like spam emails attachments, downloading software, and others.

8. Cryptominers

Such malware is the novel one and is introduced by the cybercriminals to mine digital currencies like bitcoin and others. This is done using the computing power of the infected system and the user is not aware of this. Cryptominers are hidden like a code on the website which is usually introduced by cybercriminals via security vulnerabilities.

Types of Industries Affected by Malware

For malware, there is no difference between industries and companies. They can attack anyone having the crucial data and the information that is sought by hackers. Attackers spread malware by any means or choose the system’s weakest entry point to attack that system and other systems that are connected to the network. Not only private companies, but even government organizations are also not safe from malware.

But if the hackers have a specific strategy for a specific type of company to attack, they have a specific entry point and put all their efforts into doing so. They analyze the target’s machine and look for the entry and make a very real scenario to enter and then perform the desired tasks. These hackers are not normal people but they have a great knowledge of complete networking and system operation.

Thus to prevent such attacks, cybercrime investigation takes place that will help in finding the source of the attack, and based on evidence they identify the culprit.

Why do Cybercriminals Use Malware?

By using malware, cybercriminals have access to all types of malicious software along with the viruses and they use it to perform various evil tasks such as:

To trick a victim into providing their personal data for identity theft.
To get the consumer’s credit card data or other financial data.
To take control of multiple computers for launching denial-of-service attacks against other networks.
To infect the computers and use them to get bitcoin or other cryptocurrencies.

How to Check if the System has been Infected with Malware?

Below are some signs that will indicate that your system has been compromised.

Regular slow performance of the system.
Unnecessary browser redirects, you will be redirected to the website or page that you do not intend to visit.
Various warnings like buying some software or antivirus.
Challenging to shut down or start your system.
Regular and frequent ad pop-ups.

If you are experiencing such undesired functions on your system then you might have a virus on your system that is impacting your system’s performance and taking up most of the system’s resources making it difficult to work. If you are getting frequent warnings then the likelihood of the malware is high. You must take some necessary actions to remove it completely.

How to Fight against Malware?

You can implement various security strategies to protect your system from the attack of malware. We have mentioned the best security practices that will prevent the malware from affecting your system.

1. Regular backups

If your company tends to store crucial information of the users then you must protect it from malware attacks or other security breaches. You must ensure to create a backup at various locations to achieve geo-redundancy. It not only protects your data against malware but from the physical loss of the system. Avoiding the physical space, you can even store your data on the cloud for more security and accessibility.

2. Malware scanners

You can implement the malware scanners to check any software for the possible threats or the included malware so that you can avoid downloading or running it on your system. Make sure you check for all the available software that you are going to use. These tools will help in identifying the malicious program or code that is attached to the software being downloaded.

3. Having firewall

If you install the right firewall on your system then the incoming traffic to your system will get filtered and you will be asked if you want this type of message or warning to be displayed on your system. You can set your security policies and define some rules that will help you to filter your data.

4. Checking email attachments

Make sure that you do not open any email or download its content without checking it. If the email is in the spam folder and does not consider you then you should delete it without opening it. Most spam emails come with harmful attachments that will drop malware to your system without being noticed and impact the performance of your system.

5. Software maintenance

Make sure that you keep your software up to date with frequent updates. As the older versions are more prone to get infected and then the virus will propagate itself to other parts of the computer slowing down the performance. Updating systems make sure that these critical vulnerabilities are avoided.

Conclusion

Cybercriminals make use of malware to attack your system, affect it, and then try to gain access to the system’s crucial data for their profit. You can avoid such unwanted programs by placing correct security strategies. There are various types of malware out there that are designed to perform different and defined tasks. So you need to understand their nature, behavior, and in what way they are affecting your system before eliminating them from your system.

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Unstaging Files on Git

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Removing Unstaging Changes on Git

How to Unstage Files on Git GUI?

Conclusion

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How many types of Hypervisors are there?

Type 1. Hypervisor

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How to choose the right type of Hypervisor?

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The architecture of Storage Area Network

How Does a Storage Area Network Work?

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How to Install Git on Ubuntu 20.04?

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Installing Git from Source

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3. What are the Pricing Models of the Amazon EC2 instance?

4. What is Amazon S3?

5. Explain different types of cloud service models.

6. What is AWS ‘s auto-scaling feature?

7. Explain the benefits of auto-scaling features.

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9. Mention various types of S3 storage classes.

10. Explain Policy in AWS and its various Types.

11. Explain AWS VPC.

12. Mention various types of elastic load balancers in AWS.

13. Explain NAT gateways in AWS.

14. Explain the Amazon Aurora AWS RDS database.

15. Explain Amazon Redshift.

16. Explain AMI (Amazon Machine Image).

17. Explain vertical scaling in AWS.